池井 晴美

Abstract Forests provide a variety of ecosystem services that contribute in various ways to human well-being. In times of land-use pressures, urbanisation, and nature degradation, the societal demand for forest-based therapeutic uses is increasing. Although nature-related therapies and the beneficial effects of nature on health and well-being are an old concept in cultures such as Asia and, more recently, Europe, forest therapy offers are increasingly taking hold in the forest recreation landscape. This Commentary paper identifies recent forest therapy offers and research in Asia and Europe that focus on the therapeutic effects of forests and examine their underlying rationales, practices, and status. In particular, we elaborate the socioeconomic potential of forest therapy to contribute to human health and sustainable forest management. Based on a scoping review on forest therapy offers and research, we found that countries such as Japan and South Korea are ahead of European countries in the professionalization of forest therapy offers and respective studies. While the number of studies that demonstrate the positive health benefits of forests are increasing, there is a lack of understanding the link with forest management approaches and forest and health policies. A lack of socioeconomic evaluation hinders its successful integration into policy frameworks, and prevents its use as an alternative forestry product or preventive medical treatment. For forest therapy to become part of the forestry portfolio and a medical alternative, we recommend: • Interdisciplinary research approaches and new actor alliances that link societal demands for forest therapy with insights from forest management and medical health research, • Transdisciplinary research and multi-actor approaches to link insights from forest and medical research with practitioners’ skills for forest management, service design, and communication, • To identify trade-offs and conflict potentials with forest therapy, for example in relation to timber production or questions of insurance in case of injuries by falling branches etc., that allow to develop integrated and sustainable solutions, • Policy backup and economic support for forest managers and owners to compensate for their efforts to manage their forests for therapeutic purposes • Recognition of forest therapy as an explicit part of the forestry portfolio and an alternative medical offer for clinical treatments.

Abstract In Japanese households, it is customary to walk barefoot on wooden floors. Previous reports on the psychological and physiological relaxing effects of feet contact with uncoated solid wood have already been published. However, there are no studies on the effects of feet contact with coated wood, which is commonly used for residential floors. This study aimed to validate the psychological and physiological relaxing effects of sole contact with oil-finished wood. In total, 27 women university students (mean age: 21.9 ± 1.9 years) participated in this study. Psychological indices such as the modified semantic differential method and the Profile of Mood States Second Edition were used. The oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the prefrontal cortex were determined using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. The sympathetic nervous activity and the parasympathetic nervous activity were measured using heart rate variability. The flat plate for tactile stimulation was oil-finished wood, and uncoated wood and marble were used for comparison. The sole of the feet of each participant touched each material for 90 s. Feet contact with oil-finished and uncoated wood had relaxing effects on psychological and physiological responses compared with marble. The relaxing effects of oil-finished wood and uncoated wood were similar. That is, they significantly increased subjective feelings of comfort and relaxation, improved mood states, and decreased oxy-Hb concentration in the left prefrontal cortex compared with marble. However, there were no statistically significant differences in terms of right prefrontal cortex and sympathetic nervous activities between oil-finished wood and marble. Oil-finished wood had a slightly weaker physiological relaxation effect than uncoated wood.

Growing interest in the relaxation effect of nature has elicited demands for scientific verification of the various natural elements. This study investigated the physiological and psychological responses of 27 females in their 20 s to viewing a waterfall and urban images (control) presented via a large, high-resolution display for 90 s. High-frequency [HF] for parasympathetic nervous activity and the ratio of low-frequency (LF)/[LF + HF] for sympathetic nervous activity by heart rate variability and heart rate were recorded. Simultaneous changes in oxyhemoglobin concentration in the prefrontal cortex were recorded by near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. The modified semantic differential method and Profile of Mood States Second Edition were used to assess the psychological effects on the participants after viewing each image. The results showed that viewing the waterfall image, compared with viewing the urban image, (1) increased sympathetic nervous activity; (2) provided comfortable, relaxed, and natural impressions; (3) improved mood states. In conclusion, visual contact with a waterfall image physiologically activated sympathetic nervous activity and psychologically evoked positive moods and feelings.

Abstract Wood is an important material used in decorating human living environment. Knots are prominent features found on wood surface. Moreover, they are commonly considered as undesirable surface defects, which reduce not only the mechanical properties but also the aesthetic qualities of lumber. The effects of visual stimulation using knotty wood on psychological responses among humans have been relatively well investigated. However, only few studies have assessed physiological responses. Hence, the present study aimed to assess whether knotty wood surface can reduce not only psychological but also physiological benefits for humans. Two full-sized knotty wooden-wall images and a clear wooden-wall image were used as visual stimuli using computer graphics techniques. Twenty-eight adult Japanese female university students viewed each image for 90 s in random order. During exposure to the visual stimuli, the oxyhemoglobin concentrations in the left and right prefrontal cortex and heart rate variability were consecutively measured and utilized as indicators of central and autonomic nervous system activities, respectively. In addition, the psychological effects of knotty images were examined using the modified semantic differential method and the Profile of Mood State 2nd Edition. There was no significant difference in the effects of the three images on physiological responses. All visual stimuli more or less promoted psychological comfort and relaxation. However, compared with the clear wooden-wall image, the wooden-wall image with several knots was associated with reduced psychological benefits, and the psychological responses in viewing the wooden-wall image with few knots did not remarkably differ.

The aim of the current study was to assess seasonal differences in physiological responses to walking in urban parks. In total, 51 Japanese male university students participated in this research. During each season, the participants walked for 15 min in an urban park and a city area, which was used as the control site. Heart-rate variability and heart rate were used as physiological indicators. The mean values of each indicator in a comparison between walking in an urban park and a city area were compared according to each season. In addition, to show the physiological effect of walking in an urban park, differences (between walking in an urban park and walking in a city area) were calculated. Then, differences according to each season were compared. The results showed that the participants had increased parasympathetic nervous system activity in all seasons except summer. Moreover, they had decreased sympathetic nervous system activity in spring and fall and decreased heart rate in all seasons. Compared with walking in urban parks in summer, walking in urban parks in spring, fall, and winter had a greater relaxation effect on parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activities; hence, the physiological effects of walking in urban parks vary based on season.

Empirically, viewing nature landscapes, including mountains, can promote relaxation. This study aimed to examine the physiological and psychological effects of visual stimulation using an autumn foliage mountain landscape image on autonomic nervous and brain activities. We included 27 female university students who viewed mountain and city (control) landscape images displayed on a large, high-resolution display for 90 seconds. As an indicator of autonomic nervous activity, heart rate variability (high frequency [HF], reflecting parasympathetic nervous activity, and low frequency/high frequency [LF/HF], reflecting sympathetic nervous activity) and heart rate were recorded. Simultaneously, as an indicator of brain activity, oxyhemoglobin concentrations in the prefrontal cortex were assessed using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. Viewing the mountain landscape image significantly increased HF, indicating increased parasympathetic nervous activity. Furthermore, the visual stimulation using the mountain image induced comfortable, relaxed, and natural feelings, as well as improved mood states. In conclusion, viewing an autumn foliage mountain landscape image via large display induced physiological and psychological relaxation in women in their 20s.

This study aimed to demonstrate the effects of forest-derived visual, auditory, and combined stimulation on brain activity, autonomic nervous system activity, and subjective spatial impressions. The participants included 20 Japanese female university students (age 22.1 +/- 1.8 years). Each participant viewed a gray image for 60 s with no sound (rest period), followed by an image of a forest scene with no sound (visual stimulation), a gray image with forest sounds (auditory stimulation), an image of a forest scene with forest sounds (combined stimulation), and a gray image with no sound (control) for 90 s. As indicators, near-infrared spectroscopy, heart rate variability measurement, heart rate monitoring, and modified semantic differential method were used. Compared to the control condition, combined stimulation significantly decreased oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in both prefrontal cortices and increased parasympathetic nervous activity, reflecting a relaxed state; visual and auditory stimulation significantly decreased the oxy-Hb concentration in the right prefrontal cortex; and "comfortable," "relaxed," "natural," and "realistic" feelings increased significantly for all stimulations. In conclusion, forest-derived visual, auditory, and combined stimuli induced physiologically and psychologically relaxing effects, and physiological relaxation was more pronounced under combined stimulus.

It has been recently suggested that contact with nature improves mood via reducing the activity of the prefrontal cortex. However, the specific regions within the prefrontal cortex that underlie this effect remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to identify the specific regions involved in the mood-improving effect of viewing images of nature using a 52-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Specifically, we focused on the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), two regions associated with affective processing and control. In a randomized controlled crossover experiment, we assigned thirty young adults to view images of nature and built environments for three minutes each in a counterbalanced order. During image viewing, participants wore a fNIRS probe cap and had their oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) measured. Immediately following each image viewing, participants indicated their mood in terms of comfortableness, relaxation, and vigor. Results showed that viewing images of nature significantly increased comfortableness and relaxation but not vigor compared to viewing images of built environments, with a large effect size. Meanwhile, the concentration of oxy-Hb in only the right OFC and none of the other regions significantly decreased while viewing the images of nature compared to built environments, with a medium effect size. We speculate that viewing images of nature improves mood by reducing the activity of or calming the OFC. Since the OFC is hyperactive in patients with depression and anxiety at rest, contact with nature might have therapeutic effects for them.

Wood is a sustainable and natural material used in interior design for living environment. Knots are prominent features on wood surfaces, and they affect a user’s building preference and impression. Data on the effects of wood knots on human physiological responses are limited. Hence, further studies should be conducted. This study examined the effects of interior wall images comprising knotty or clear wood on physiological responses. Computer graphics were used to prepare wall images of knotty or clear lumber. A gray image was set as the control. In total, 28 adult Japanese female university students were included in this study. They observed two types of wood interior wall images for 90 s. The control was also set for 90 s. The oxyhemoglobin level in the prefrontal cortex measured by near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy (TRS) and the activities of parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves assessed using the heart rate variability (HRV) were utilized as physiological indexes. TRS sensors, which emit and receive near-infrared light, were attached to frontal pole (Fp) 1 and Fp2, based on the international 10–20 method. R-R interval was measured using HRV sensors attached based on the three-point guidance method, and frequency data were analyzed to assess high frequency (HF), which reflects parasympathetic nervous system activity, and the ratio of high and low frequencies (LF/HF), which reflects sympathetic nervous system activity. The knotty wood sedated the right prefrontal cortex activity compared with the control and enhanced parasympathetic nerve activity compared with before stimulation. Clear wood sedated the left prefrontal cortex activity compared with the control and suppressed sympathetic nerve activity compared with before stimulation. Subjective evaluations revealed that compared with gray wall images, both knotty and clear wood images significantly promoted comfort, relaxation, and natural feeling and improved overall mood states. In addition, clear wood image had a more positive subjective effect than knotty image. Wall images comprising knotty or clear wood, when used as a visual stimulus, have a physiological relaxation effect among adult women in their 20s.

© 2020 The Author(s) Studies on the psychological effects of nature have been increasing, but few studies have focused on individual differences in these effects. The purpose of this study was to examine the individual differences in the psychological effects of forest sounds based on Type A and Type B behavior patterns. The Kwansei Gakuin (KG) daily life questionnaire was used as an indicator for Type A and Type B behavior patterns. This study included 29 female university students (mean age, 22.3 ± 2.1 years) who were exposed to high-resolution forest and city sounds for 60 s, and they provided subjective evaluations on a modified Semantic Differential method and the Profile of Mood States questionnaire. After exposure to the forest sounds, the Type A group (n = 12) reported higher levels of feeling comfortable, relaxed, and natural, as well as lower levels of anger–hostility, than the Type B group (n = 17). The findings demonstrated that the Type A and Type B groups experienced different psychological effects from forest-derived auditory stimulation.

Benefits related to health promotion by getting closer to forests have received increasing attention in modern stressful society; however, evidence-based research about how our brain activity changes when we stay in a forest environment is limited. Thus, the goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of viewing real forest landscapes on the activity in the prefrontal cortex area of young women’s brains. The experiment included 29 women (age: 21.0 ± 1.4 years) and was executed in five forest and five urban areas. The participants stayed in the forest and urban areas and viewed each view for 15 min. While viewing scenery, they had the oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the left and right areas of their prefrontal cortexes measured continuously. Viewing real forest landscapes was associated with a significantly lower oxy-Hb concentration in the right area of the prefrontal cortex than when seeing urban areas. In conclusion, viewing real forest landscapes substantially diminished oxy-Hb concentrations in the right area of the prefrontal cortex, which is linked to physiological relaxation.

The aim of this study was to validate the psychological advantages of viewing forest landscapes. Moreover, the associations between trait anxiety levels and psychological responses were evaluated. A total of 650 university male students (age, 21.7 ± 1.6 years) viewed a scenery in a forested area and an urban area for 15 min. Furthermore, the Profile of Mood States questionnaire and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were employed for the assessment of the psychological responses and the level of trait anxiety, respectively, of the participants. Results showed that compared with viewing a city area, viewing forest areas increased positive mood state, such as vigor, and decreased negative mood states. Furthermore, trait anxiety level and changes in the psychological responses such as depression–dejection, fatigue, and confusion after viewing forest landscapes were significantly correlated. The participants with high anxiety levels had greater reduction in negative mood state, including confusion, than those with low anxiety levels. In conclusion, viewing forest landscapes induced psychological relaxation, which was more evident in individuals with high anxiety levels.

Population growth and increased stress caused by urbanization have led to social problems that are predicted to intensify in the future. In these conditions, the recently established ”nature therapy” has revealed that an environment rich in various plant life significantly contributes to the relief of physical and mental stress. Meanwhile, from the perspective of reduction in the energy required for transportation and the retention of plant freshness, urban horticulture, in which plant life exists harmoniously with the city, has attracted considerable attention. Interactions between humans and plants in urban horticulture are considered to contribute to the good health and wellbeing of people. Therefore, we incorporate human-centered thinking based on nature therapy into horticultural produce-centered thinking based on conventional urban horticulture. By introducing a pioneering urban horticulture plant factory as an example, we propose the possibility of sustainable urban horticulture based on nature therapy.

Exposure to natural sounds is known to induce feelings of relaxation; however, only few studies have provided scientific evidence on its physiological effects. This study examined prefrontal cortex and autonomic nervous activities in response to forest sound. A total of 29 female university students (mean age 22.3 ± 2.1 years) were exposed to high-resolution sounds of a forest or city for 60 s, using headphones. Oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the prefrontal cortex were determined by near-infrared spectroscopy. Heart rate, the high-frequency component of heart rate variability (which reflects parasympathetic nervous activity), and the ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency (LF/HF) components (which reflects sympathetic nervous activity) were measured. Subjective evaluation was performed using the modified semantic differential method and profiles of mood states. Exposure to the forest sound resulted in the following significant differences compared with exposure to city sound: decreased oxy-Hb concentrations in the right prefrontal cortex; decreased ln(LF/HF); decreased heart rate; improved feelings described as “comfortable,’’ “relaxed,” and “natural”; and improved mood states. The findings of this study demonstrated that forest-derived auditory stimulation induced physiological and psychological relaxation effects.

This study aimed to clarify the physiological effects of touching hinoki cypress (hereinafter called “hinoki”) (Chamaecyparis obtusa) wood with the palm of the right hand on brain activity and autonomic nervous activity. Twenty-two female university students (mean age 21.1 ± 0.2 years) participated in the study. As an indicator of brain activity, oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations were measured in the left/right prefrontal cortex using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. Heart rate variability (HRV) was used as an indicator of autonomic nervous activity. The high-frequency (HF) component of HRV, which reflected parasympathetic nervous activity, and the low-frequency (LF)/HF ratio, which reflected sympathetic nervous activity, were measured. Plate (300 × 300 mm) of uncoated hinoki was used as tactile stimulation. Marble was used as a control material. After sitting at rest with their eyes closed, the participants touched the materials for 90 s with their eyes still closed. The results showed that tactile stimulation with hinoki significantly decreased oxy-Hb concentration in the left prefrontal cortex and increased ln(HF) reflected parasympathetic nervous activity compared with marble. In conclusion, our study showed that touching hinoki wood with the palm calms prefrontal cortex activity and increases parasympathetic nervous activity, thereby inducing physiological relaxation.

This study was aimed to clarify the physiological effects of visual stimulation using forest imagery on activity of the brain and autonomic nervous system. Seventeen female university students (mean age, 21.1 ± 1.0 years) participated in the study. As an indicator of brain activity, oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations were measured in the left and right prefrontal cortex using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. Heart rate variability (HRV) was used as an indicator of autonomic nervous activity. The high-frequency (HF) component of HRV, which reflected parasympathetic nervous activity, and the ratio of low-frequency (LF) and high-frequency components (LF/HF), which reflected sympathetic nervous activity, were measured. Forest and city (control) images were used as visual stimuli using a large plasma display window. After sitting at rest viewing a gray background for 60 s, participants viewed two images for 90 s. During rest and visual stimulation, HRV and oxy-Hb concentration in the prefrontal cortex were continuously measured. Immediately thereafter, subjective evaluation of feelings was performed using a modified semantic differential (SD) method. The results showed that visual stimulation with forest imagery induced (1) a significant decrease in oxy-Hb concentrations in the right prefrontal cortex and (2) a significant increase in perceptions of feeling “comfortable,” “relaxed,” and “natural.”

Objectives: The present study aimed to clarify the effects of viewing fresh roses on prefrontal cortex activity, autonomic nervous activity and subjective assessments of psychological relaxation. Design: A crossover design, in which each experimental group crosses over from one treatment to another, was used. Setting and interventions: A total of 15 female university students (mean age 21.7 +/- 1.1 years) viewed fresh roses for 3 min; the control consisted of no experimental stimulus. Main outcome measures: Physiological effects on prefrontal cortex activity were determined by near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy, which was assessed by measuring oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentration in the left and right prefrontal cortex; effects on autonomic nervous activity were assessed by measuring heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate. Modified semantic differential method and Profile of Mood States were used to determine subjective evaluations. Results: Viewing roses induced: 1) a significant decrease in oxy-Hb concentrations in the right prefrontal cortex; 2) a marginally significant decrease in ln[LF/(LF + HF)] of HRV, which is associated with sympathetic nervous activity; 3) a significant increase in perceptions of feeling 'comfortable,' relaxed,' and 'natural;' and 4) a significant improvement in mood state. Conclusions: These findings indicate that visual stimulation with roses induces physiological and psychological relaxation.

Considering the increasing demand for rural areas to play a role in easing stress mainly experienced by urban dwellers, we investigated from a multidisciplinary collaborative approach, i.e., physiological, psychological, and rural business management perspectives, the relaxation effects of forest-therapy tourism, an emerging type of rural tourism, on a group of urban office workers. Also investigated were conditions necessary for a sustainable rural business in Chizu, western Japan. First, the results verified physiological and psychological relaxation effects, which lasted from three to five days after forest therapy, The lasting physiological and psychological effects among those with systolic blood pressure >= 120 mmHg, however, were weaker than in the entire sample. Second, due to the ageing and depopulation of the local community, increasing the number of households that provided home stay services was difficult. In summary, it is necessary to fully integrate scientific evidence to support a viable new rural tourism business. (C) 2017 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

We examined the sustained effects of a forest therapy program on the blood pressure of office workers. Twenty-six office workers (mean age +/- standard deviation, 35.7 +/- 11.1 years) participated in a 1-day forest therapy program. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure and pulse rate were used as measurement indices. The evaluations were performed three times before breakfast, lunch, and dinner 3 days before, during, and 3 and 5 days after the forest therapy program. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure significantly decreased during the forest therapy program relative to the value from 3 days before the program, and this decrease was maintained 3 and 5 days after the forest therapy program. There were no significant differences in pulse rate. We then specifically focused on nine participants whose systolic blood pressure was above 120 mmHg. For the measurement before dinner, the systolic blood pressure significantly decreased (from 133.8 to 116.6 mmHg) during the forest therapy program, and this decrease was maintained at 3 and 5 days after the program (126.4 and 124.0 mmHg, respectively). A significant decrease in diastolic blood pressure (from 88.6 to 77.1 mmHg) was observed during the forest therapy program. In conclusion, systolic and diastolic blood pressure decreased during the forest therapy program and these decreases were maintained for 5 days.

Nature therapy has been demonstrated to induce physiological relaxation. The psychophysiological effects of nature therapy (stimulation with bonsai trees) on adult male patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) were examined. Oxyhemoglobin concentration changes in the prefrontal cortex were measured using near-infrared spectroscopy, and heart rate variability was analyzed. Psychological responses were evaluated using the modified semantic differential method and Profile of Mood States (POMS) subscale scores. Visual stimulation of adult male patients with SCI elicited significantly decreased left prefrontal cortex activity, increased parasympathetic nervous activity, decreased sympathetic nervous activity, increased positive feelings, and resulted in lower negative POMS subscale scores. Nature therapy can lead to a state of physiological and psychological relaxation in patients with SCI.

Salivary cortisol and secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) are important biomarkers for environmental and public health research. The present study investigated the diurnal variations of these salivary biomarkers, with a focus on the change of distribution characteristics (i.e., skewness and kurtosis) of the concentrations. The participants in this study were 113 healthy young males. Salivary samples were collected in the morning (6:30–7:30 a.m.) and afternoon (1:00–4:00 p.m.). The skewness and kurtosis of salivary cortisol concentrations in afternoon samples (skewness = 1.06, kurtosis = 4.78) were significantly higher than those in morning samples (skewness = 0.49, kurtosis = 2.80). The differences in skewness and kurtosis of S-IgA concentrations were non-significant however, the standard deviation and interquartile ranges for afternoon S-IgA concentrations were significantly smaller than those for morning S-IgA concentrations. Logarithmic transformation improved the distribution of afternoon cortisol values, making it an almost normal distribution, but the transformation showed no improvement in the distribution of morning cortisol or S-IgA values. The present study explored diurnal changes in the distribution characteristics of salivary cortisol and S-IgA. Consideration of a possible diurnal change in the distribution characteristics is needed when we compare the difference in these salivary biomarkers between different times of day.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a forest environment on salivary cortisol concentration, particularly on the characteristics of its distribution. The participants were 348 young male subjects. The experimental sites were 34 forests and 34 urban areas across Japan. The subjects viewed the landscape (forest or urban environment) for a period of 15 min while sitting in a chair. Saliva was sampled from the participants at the end of this 15-min period and then analyzed for cortisol concentration. Differences in the skewness and kurtosis of the distributions between the two environments were tested by performing a permutation test. The cortisol concentrations exhibited larger skewness (0.76) and kurtosis (3.23) in a forest environment than in an urban environment (skewness = 0.49 kurtosis = 2.47), and these differences were statistically significant. The cortisol distribution exhibited a more peaked and longer right-tailed curve in a forest environment than in an urban environment.

This study aimed to clarify the physiological effects of touching wood with the palm, in comparison with touching other materials on brain activity and autonomic nervous activity. Eighteen female university students (mean age, 21.7 ± 1.6 years) participated in the study. As an indicator of brain activity, oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations were measured in the left/right prefrontal cortex using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. Heart rate variability (HRV) was used as an indicator of autonomic nervous activity. The high-frequency (HF) component of HRV, which reflected parasympathetic nervous activity, and the low-frequency (LF)/HF ratio, which reflected sympathetic nervous activity, were measured. Plates of uncoated white oak, marble, tile, and stainless steel were used as tactile stimuli. After sitting at rest with their eyes closed, participants touched the materials for 90 s. As a result, tactile stimulation with white oak significantly (1) decreased the oxy-Hb concentration in the left/right prefrontal cortex relative to marble, tile, and stainless steel and (2) increased ln(HF)-reflected parasympathetic nervous activity relative to marble and stainless steel. In conclusion, our study revealed that touching wood with the palm calms prefrontal cortex activity and induces parasympathetic nervous activity more than other materials, thereby inducing physiological relaxation.

This study examined the physiological effects of touching wood with various coating with the palm of the hand on brain activity and autonomic nervous activity. Participants were 18 female university students (mean age, 21.7 ± 1.6 years). As an indicator of brain activity, oxyhemoglobin concentrations were measured in the left and right prefrontal cortices using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy. Heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate were used as indicators of autonomic nervous activity. The high-frequency (HF) component of HRV, which reflects parasympathetic nervous activity, and the low-frequency (LF)/HF ratio, which reflects sympathetic nervous activity, were measured. Plates of uncoated, oil-finished, vitreous-finished, urethane-finished, and mirror-finished white oak wood were used as tactile stimuli. After sitting at rest with their eyes closed for 60 s, participants touched the stimuli with their palm for 90 s each. The results indicated that tactile stimulation with uncoated wood calmed prefrontal cortex activity (vs. urethane finish and mirror finish), increased parasympathetic nervous activity (vs. vitreous finish, urethane finish, and mirror finish), and decreased heart rate (vs. mirror finish), demonstrating a physiological relaxation effect. Further, tactile stimulation with oil- and vitreous-finished wood calmed left prefrontal cortex activity and decreased heart rate relative to mirror-finished wood.

It is empirically known that wood can cause a comfort enhancement effect in humans. On the other hand, not enough scientific knowledge based on evidence-based research is available on this subject. However, data using physiological indices have increasingly accumulated in recent years. This review provides an overview of the current situation for peer-reviewed reports related to the physiological effects of wood. We reviewed reports that elucidated the effects of wood-derived stimulations on the olfactory, visual, auditory, and tactile sensations using physiological indices such as brain activity (e.g., near-infrared spectroscopy) and autonomic nervous activity (e.g., heart rate variability and blood pressure). It became clear that many studies were limited by (1) a small number of participants, mostly aged in their 20s; (2) use of only a single stimulus (e.g., only olfactory or only visual), or (3) an incomplete experimental design. In addition, this review examined the field of forest therapy, for which there is abundant research. Further study is needed to elucidate the physiological effects of wood on humans.

With increasing attention on the health benefits of a forest environment, evidence-based research is required. This study aims to provide scientific evidence concerning the physiological and psychological effects of exposure to the forest environment on middle-aged hypertensive men. Twenty participants (58.0 +/- 10.6 years) were instructed to sit on chairs and view the landscapes of forest and urban (as control) environments for 10 min. Heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate were used to quantify physiological responses. The modified semantic differential method was used to determine psychological responses. Consequently, the high-frequency component of HRV, a marker of parasympathetic nervous activity that is enhanced in relaxing situations, was significantly higher and heart rate was significantly lower in participants viewing the forest area than in those viewing the urban area. The questionnaire results indicated that viewing the forest environment increased "comfortable," "relaxed," and "natural" feelings than viewing the urban environment. In conclusion, viewing forest landscape produces physiological and psychological relaxation effects on middle-aged hypertensive men. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.

Humans have evolved into what they are today after the passage of 6-7 million years. If we define the beginning of urbanization as the rise of the industrial revolution, less than 0.01% of our species’ history has been spent in modern surroundings. Humans have spent over 99.99% of their time living in the natural environment. The gap between the natural setting, for which our physiological functions are adapted, and the highly urbanized and artificial setting that we inhabit is a contributing cause of the “stress state” in modern people. In recent years, scientific evidence supporting the physiological effects of relaxation caused by natural stimuli has accumulated. This review aimed to objectively demonstrate the physiological effects of nature therapy. We have reviewed research in Japan related to the following: (1) the physiological effects of nature therapy, including those of forests, urban green space, plants, and wooden material and (2) the analyses of individual differences that arise therein. The search was conducted in the PubMed database using various keywords. We applied our inclusion/exclusion criteria and reviewed 52 articles. Scientific data assessing physiological indicators, such as brain activity, autonomic nervous activity, endocrine activity, and immune activity, are accumulating from field and laboratory experiments. We believe that nature therapy will play an increasingly important role in preventive medicine in the future.

Background: In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the physiological effects of nature-derived stimulation. The physiological relaxation effects caused by forest-derived olfactory stimuli have been demonstrated. However, there are no studies on the physiological effects of olfactory stimuli by Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) leaves. We investigated the effects of olfactory stimulation by Hinoki cypress leaf oil on the left/right prefrontal cortex activity, assessed using near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy (TRS), and on the autonomic nervous activity, assessed by measuring heart rate variability (HRV). Method: Thirteen female university students (mean age, 21.5 ± 1.0 years) participated in the study. Physiological measurements were performed in an artificial climate maintained at 25 °C, 50 % relative humidity, and 230-lx illumination. Hinoki cypress leaf oil was used as an olfactory stimulation with air as the control. The odor was administered for 90 s, while the subjects sat with their eyes closed. Oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations were measured in the prefrontal cortex using TRS. The high-frequency (HF) component of HRV, which is an estimate of parasympathetic nervous activity, and the low-frequency (LF)/(LF + HF) ratio, which is an estimate of sympathetic nervous activity, were measured by electrocardiography. A modified semantic differential method was used to perform subjective evaluations. Results: Olfactory stimulation by Hinoki cypress leaf oil induced a significant reduction in oxy-Hb concentration in the right prefrontal cortex and increased parasympathetic nervous activity. The subjects reported feeling more comfortable. Conclusion: These findings indicate that olfactory stimulation by Hinoki cypress leaf oil induces physiological relaxation.

The natural environment is increasingly recognized as an effective counter to urban stress, and “Forest Therapy” has recently attracted attention as a relaxation and stress management activity with demonstrated clinical efficacy. The present study assessed the physiological and psychological effects of a forest therapy program on middle-aged females. Seventeen Japanese females (62.2 × 9.4 years mean ± standard deviation) participated in this experiment. Pulse rate, salivary cortisol level, and psychological indices were measured on the day before forest therapy and on the forest therapy day. Pulse rate and salivary cortisol were significantly lower than baseline following forest therapy, indicating that subjects were in a physiologically relaxed state. Subjects reported feeling significantly more “comfortable,” “relaxed,” and “natural” according to the semantic differential (SD) method. The Profile of Mood State (POMS) negative mood subscale score for “tension–anxiety” was significantly lower, while that for “vigor” was significantly higher following forest therapy. Our study revealed that forest therapy elicited a significant (1) decrease in pulse rate, (2) decrease in salivary cortisol levels, (3) increase in positive feelings, and (4) decrease in negative feelings. In conclusion, there are substantial physiological and psychological benefits of forest therapy on middle-aged females.

In recent times, attention has been focused on the role of urban green spaces in promoting human health and well-being. However, there is a lack of evidence-based research on the physiological effects of walking in urban green areas. This study aimed to clarify the physiological and psychological effects of walking in urban parks during fall. Twenty-three males (mean age 22.3 ± 1.2 years) were instructed to walk predetermined 15-min courses in an urban park and in a nearby city area (control). Heart rate and heart rate variability were measured to assess physiological responses, and the semantic differential method, Profile of Mood States, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to measure psychological responses. We observed that walking in an urban park resulted in a significantly lower heart rate, higher parasympathetic nerve activity, and lower sympathetic nerve activity than walking through the city area. In subjective evaluations, participants were more “comfortable,” “natural,” “relaxed,” and “vigorous” after a walk in the urban park. Furthermore, they exhibited significantly lower levels of negative emotions and anxiety. These findings provide scientific evidence for the physiological and psychological relaxation effects of walking in urban parks during fall.